For millennia, people across the globe have adorned their skin with tattoos, each culture imbuing them with unique meanings. From ancient Siberian nomads to Indigenous Polynesians, Nubians, Native South Americans, and Greeks, tattoos served diverse purposes: protection against evil, declarations of love, markers of status or religious conviction, decorative enhancements, and even forms of retribution.

Joann Fletcher, a research fellow at the University of York, investigates the historical and cultural significance of tattoos. Her expertise lies in ancient Egyptians, once believed to be the first tattoo artists due to tattooed mummies found. However, the 1991 discovery of Ötzi the Iceman, a 5,300-year-old mummy bearing ink markings, shifted this understanding.

Since Ötzi, tattoos have spread globally. A Pew Research Center study reveals that 32% of Americans have at least one tattoo, often driven by shared reasons. The study found that 69% of tattooed U.S. adults sought to commemorate someone or something, 47% aimed to express their beliefs, and 32% wanted to enhance their appearance; motivations surprisingly similar to those of people throughout history.

What is the earliest evidence of tattoos? – For a long time, the oldest known tattoos were found on Egyptian female mummies from around 2000 B.C.E. However, the 1991 discovery of the Iceman along the Italian-Austrian border, whose tattoos were carbon-dated to approximately 5,200 years old, has moved back the estimated date of the earliest known tattoos by a millennium.

What proof exists suggesting the presence of tattoos among ancient Egyptians? – Evidence suggests that women were tattooed as early as 4000-3500 B.C.E., as seen on figurines, and later in tomb scenes (circa 1200 B.C.E.) and figurines (circa 1300 B.C.E.) depicting women with thigh tattoos. Furthermore, bronze tools believed to be tattooing implements have been found at Gurob, Egypt, dating back to approximately 1450 B.C.E. Perhaps most compelling are the tattooed mummies themselves, including the three women from around 2000 B.C.E. and several later female mummies with tattoos discovered in Greco-Roman burials at Akhmim.

What purpose did these tattoos have, and who received them and for what reasons? – Since tattooing in ancient Egypt appeared to be primarily a female custom—although recent discoveries show at least one man was also tattooed—male excavators often disregarded mummies bearing tattoos, presuming these women to be of “dubious status,” sometimes even labeling them as “dancing girls.” However, these female mummies were interred at Deir el-Bahari (across from modern Luxor), a location linked to royal and elite burials; furthermore, funerary inscriptions reveal that at least one woman, initially identified as “probably a royal concubine,” was in fact Amunet, a high-status priestess.

While commonly interpreted as marks of prostitutes or protections against STIs, my theory posits that ancient Egyptian women’s tattoos served a therapeutic purpose, acting as permanent amulets during the challenging periods of pregnancy and childbirth. This is substantiated by the location of the tattoos, concentrated around the abdomen, thighs, and breasts, and also by the specific designs employed, particularly the net-like patterns of dots covering the abdomen. These patterns would expand protectively during pregnancy, mirroring the function of bead nets placed on mummies to safeguard and contain.

Furthermore, the placement of small Bes figures, the household deity known for protecting women in labor, at the tops of the thighs suggests the use of tattoos to ensure a safe delivery. This interpretation would ultimately explain why tattooing was exclusively a female practice.

Tattoos used in other ancient cultures – Tattooing as a permanent form of body adornment was practiced by many ancient cultures, including the Nubians south of Egypt. Archaeological evidence reveals that women of the indigenous C-group culture, dating back to 2000-1500 B.C.E., were tattooed with blue markings, with mummified remains found in cemeteries near Kubban exhibiting this practice, including dot patterns across the abdomen similar to those found on female mummies from Deir el-Bahari. Furthermore, ancient Egyptians depicted Libyan leaders in art from around 1300-1100 B.C.E. with distinct geometrical tattoos on their arms and legs, as seen in Egyptian tombs, temples, and palace scenes.

The Pazyryk culture of the Altai Mountain region, a Scythian group, also practiced tattooing. Evidence of this comes from the 1948 discovery of a 2,400-year-old Scythian male in Siberia, preserved in ice, whose body was adorned with elaborate tattoos of mythical animals. Further confirmation arose in 1993 with the unearthing of a similarly aged tattooed woman in an Altai tomb; her shoulders, wrists, and thumb displayed mythical creatures. The Greek writer Herodotus, around 450 B.C.E., corroborated this custom, noting that among the Scythians and Thracians, tattoos served as indicators of nobility, with their absence signifying low social standing.

Reports from ancient times indicate that the Britons also practiced tattooing, using it as a symbol of high rank and adorning themselves with various animal figures; this led the Romans to call one northern tribe the “Picti,” meaning “the painted people.”

However, among the Greeks and Romans, tattoos, then known as “stigmata,” were primarily employed to designate individuals as members of a religious group, property of an owner (in the case of slaves), or as punishment for criminals. Interestingly, during the Ptolemaic period, when a dynasty of Macedonian Greek rulers governed Egypt, Pharaoh Ptolemy IV (221-205 B.C.E.) was reportedly tattooed with ivy leaves to demonstrate his allegiance to Dionysus, the Greek god of wine and the patron deity of the royal family. This trend was embraced by Roman soldiers and disseminated throughout the Roman Empire until the rise of Christianity, when tattoos were perceived as defacing God’s creation and were subsequently prohibited by Emperor Constantine (C.E. 306-373).

Facial and body tattooing was a widespread practice among Native American groups like the Cree, and evidence of this practice has also been found in other cultures. Specifically, mummified remains of six Greenland Inuit women from around 1475 C.E. show signs of facial tattooing. Infrared analysis revealed that five of these women had tattoos consisting of lines above the eyebrows, along the cheeks, and, for some, a series of lines on the chin. An earlier discovery on St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea revealed the mummified remains of a woman from 1,000 years prior, with tattoos of dots, lines, and hearts decorating her arms and hands.

Evidence of tattooing exists in ancient mummies discovered in China’s Taklamakan Desert, dating back to around 1200 B.C.E. However, during the later Han Dynasty (202 B.C.E. – C.E. 220), tattooing appears to have been reserved solely for criminals.

Around the late 3rd century, Japanese men started embellishing their bodies with intricate tattoos. Polynesian cultures developed elaborate tattoo traditions over thousands of years, characterized by complex geometric patterns that often covered the entire body. The word “tattoo” entered Western vocabulary after James Cook’s British expedition to Tahiti in 1769, derived from the Tahitian term “tatatau” or “tattau,” meaning “to hit” or “to strike.” Tattoos subsequently gained popularity among Europeans, especially men in risky professions such as sailors and coal miners. The anchor and miner’s lamp tattoos frequently seen on their forearms likely served as amulets, reflecting the dangers inherent in their work.

Today’s Japanese tattoos represent a sophisticated art form, showcasing the talent of numerous contemporary artists, while Samoan tattooists maintain their ancestral traditions, practicing their art with techniques predating modern equipment. Across Africa, diverse cultures utilize tattoos, from the delicate dot patterns on Algerian Berber women’s faces to the complex facial designs of Niger’s Wodaabe men and the small cross tattoos identifying Egypt’s Coptic Christians.

What do Maori facial designs represent – In Maori culture, the head held paramount importance, and the face was adorned with intricate tattoos known as “moko,” signifying high social standing. These unique designs served as a personalized form of identification, communicating the individual’s status, lineage, rank, and skills – essentially an aesthetic “bar code” or passport etched onto the face. The tattooing process involved using sharp bone chisels to carve the designs into the skin, after which a soot-based pigment was applied to the open wounds to create a lasting mark. For warriors, these tattoos marked significant life stages and were believed to enhance their attractiveness.

While Maori women also received facial tattoos, their markings were primarily concentrated around the nose and lips. Despite attempts by Christian missionaries to suppress the practice, Maori women maintained that these tattoos helped prevent wrinkles and preserve a youthful appearance, and the tradition reportedly continued until the 1970s.

Tattooing appears to have arisen independently in many cultures, serving initially to embed protective or therapeutic symbols on the body. Later, it evolved into a method for distinguishing social, political, or religious affiliations, as well as a means of self-expression and fashion. However, cross-cultural influences were also significant, exemplified by exchanges between Egyptians and Nubians, Thracians and Greeks, and the cultures impacted by the Roman Empire. Polynesian influence on Maori tattoos is also well-documented.