Venice is uniquely situated across 119 islands within the Venetian Lagoon, a large saltwater expanse separated from the Adriatic Sea by a narrow strip of land. Before the city’s rise, this area was home to Illyrian tribes and the Veneti people, who built stilt houses in the lagoon and sustained themselves through fishing and salt production.
According to tradition, Venice was founded in 421 AD. Driven from the mainland by the Ostrogoths and Lombards, the Veneti sought refuge in the marshy lands near the Po River’s mouth, establishing what would become Venice.
The city’s location within a swamp afforded it significant independence and proved a formidable defense against would-be conquerors. In 810, even Pepin of Italy, Charlemagne’s son and King of the Lombards, was forced to abandon a six-month siege of the lagoon.
During the 6th century, Venice was conquered by Flavius Belisarius, a general of the Byzantine Empire. Becoming part of the Exarchate of Ravenna, Venice fell under the protection of the Eastern Roman Empire.
In 697, taking advantage of the Exarchate’s weakened state, Venice’s wealthy families appointed their first doge, Anafestus Paulicius. Initially, the position of doge was hereditary and held for life. However, after periods of infighting among the city’s patrician families, the doges became elected officials.
In 829, the relics of Saint Mark the Evangelist were famously stolen from Alexandria, Egypt, and brought to Venice. Saint Mark subsequently became the city’s patron saint, with his relics enshrined in St Mark’s Basilica.
A devastating fire in 976 destroyed the city center, including the Doge’s Palace, the city archives, and the original church dedicated to San Marco. In return for Venetian naval support against Norman incursions, Constantinople granted Venice significant trading privileges within the Eastern Roman Empire.
This advantageous relationship and the resulting trade concessions fostered crucial commercial ties for Venice with numerous regions and countries. The Venetian ambassador enjoyed exclusive privileges with Byzantium, conducting diplomacy characterized by shrewdness, adaptability, and opportunism. For instance, Venetians continued to trade with the Muslim world despite prohibitions from Lateran councils.
Venice’s power grew through the trade of valuable commodities: spices and silk from Constantinople and Alexandria, slaves, wood, and fish from Dalmatia, and iron from the Alps. Notably, Venice profited from buying slaves from southern Russia and selling them in North Africa. They also traded slaves acquired from Turkey and Alexandria within Europe.
Venice’s influence reached imperial heights following the Fourth Crusade (1202-1204), which resulted in the establishment of the Latin Empire. Venetian galleys, led by Enrico Dandolo, captured and brutally sacked Constantinople. The Greek Empire was subsequently divided among the crusaders and Venice, with Venice gaining control of strategic commercial areas in Syria, Palestine, Crete, and Cyprus. During this era, the Venetian merchant Marco Polo traveled to China and documented his experiences in his famous book.
With control over the Mediterranean secured, Venice expanded its reach into the Atlantic, establishing colonies in Southampton, Bruges, and London. In 1284, Venice introduced gold ducats, which, alongside Florence’s Florin, served as a major European trade currency for the next three centuries.
The Political System of the Venetian Republic
From its inception, the Republic of Venice was meticulously designed to prevent the doge from accruing absolute power, resulting in a unique republican system unlike any other in Italy. The patrician class, driven by their financial interests, were determined to avoid governance by a single individual.
Beginning in 1148, each newly elected doge was compelled to sign the “Doge’s Promise,” a binding agreement outlining their responsibilities and limitations.
To further dilute the influence of elite families, the Great Council was established in 1177, composed of select members of the nobility. This was later supplemented by the Minor Council, a body of six advisors to the doge, and the Quarantia (Council of Forty), which served as the Republic’s Supreme Court.
These institutions were consolidated in 1223 by the doge with the creation of the Signoria of Venice. This supreme governing body, also known as the Serenissima Signoria, ensured the Republic’s continuity, as symbolized by the saying: “The Doge is dead, but not the Signoria.”
In 1229, the Consiglio dei Pregadi, or Senate, was formed, consisting of 60 members elected by the Major Council. This body was responsible for directing Venice’s foreign policy and appointing its ambassadors.
A Council of Ten, resembling a secret state police, was established in 1310. Over time, this council accumulated significant power, evolving into a central political force within Venice. Executive functions were managed by “Collegios,” comprising representatives from various Venetian groups, creating a collective executive branch.
Effectively, the doge wielded limited authority, with most key decisions emanating from the Major Council. From 1297 onward, membership in the Great Council of Venice became hereditary, passed down from father to son.
This hereditary system led to an oligarchy, where approximately two hundred families controlled the Venetian state. In response to the growing power of the Duke of Milan, Venice embarked on a campaign of territorial expansion in the first half of the fifteenth century, conquering areas within Italy.
By 1410, Venice controlled a significant portion of the region, including Verona and Padua, eventually extending its reach to Brescia and Bergamo. The Adriatic Sea became the “Venetian Sea,” and Venetian influence extended to territories such as Cyprus. Taking advantage of the Byzantine Empire’s decline, Venice gained control over Crete and Cyprus (in 1498), as well as Eubea.
During the 15th century, Venice stood as a global commercial hub, boasting the world’s largest port and a population exceeding 200,000. Wealthy families commissioned magnificent palazzos adorned by renowned artists like Veronese and Giorgione. This period marked the zenith of Venice’s power and prosperity.
Decline
Venice’s rise to imperial power, spurred by the sack of Constantinople, began its long decline with the city’s fall to Sultan Mehmet II in 1453. Further contributing to Venice’s decline were the explorations of the Americas in 1492 and Vasco da Gama’s discovery of the sea route to India.
The expansion of the Ottoman Empire into the Balkans posed a threat to Venice’s newly acquired territories, culminating in the loss of Cyprus to the Turks in 1570, followed by Crete and other Venetian possessions. A peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire in 1573 officially concluded the war between the two powers. Although Venice, as part of the Holy League with the Holy See and Spain, achieved victory at the Battle of Lepanto, it failed to regain lost territories.
Tensions also arose from Venice’s territorial expansion in Italy, drawing opposition from the Pope and his powerful allies, including Louis XII of France, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II, and Ferdinand II of Aragon; however, Venice’s diplomatic efforts averted a major conflict. Finally, the devastating Plague of 1629-31 decimated a third of Venice’s population, leaving the city vulnerable to threats such as the Bedmar conspiracy by Naples and the Habsburg’s promotion of the Port of Trieste to weaken its economic power.
A Battle for Venice
The once-powerful Venice experienced a decline in the 18th century, attempting to reclaim its influence with a war against Tunisia, only to be conquered by Napoleon in May 1797. Subsequently, France and Austria vied for control of the city.
In 1797, Venice rejected an alliance with Napoleon Bonaparte, leading to his decision to end the city’s three centuries of independence. As retribution, Napoleon plundered the Bucentaur, the Doge’s ceremonial barge, seizing its gold and jewels. The barge was then transported to France and repurposed as a prison galley.
Doge Ludovico Manin and the Great Council abdicated, replaced by a pro-French municipal government. Napoleon then established the Cisalpine Republic in Italy, becoming its president and later declaring himself Emperor of France and King of the Kingdom of Italy. The Treaty of Campo Formio in October 1797 placed Venice under the control of the Austrian Empire.
Napoleon regained control of Venice from Austria in 1805 through the Treaty of Pressburg, incorporating it into the Kingdom of Italy. The following year, his brother Joseph Bonaparte was appointed head of Venice. This period of French rule spurred the growth of intense Italian nationalist sentiment.
Following Napoleon’s defeat in 1814, Venice was once again returned to Austria as part of the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia. Later, Venice was separated from Lombardy, which had chosen to unite with the Kingdom of Italy.
Nationalist fervor spread rapidly, leading to the formation of secret societies, most notably Young Italy and the Carbonari, dedicated to uniting Venice with the rest of Italy.
These societies organized several uprisings, which were suppressed by the Austrian army at the Battle of Rieti in 1821. Undeterred, new insurrections erupted on March 11th in Piamonte, Turin, Modena, and Parma.
After the Battle of Rieti, an assembly voted for Venice’s unification with Italy, prompting the Austrians to destroy a significant portion of the city before Venice surrendered on August 22, 1849.
The unrest escalated into a broader conflict involving all of Italy against Austria. The Duchy of Milan, the Pope, and the King of Naples provided reinforcements to fight against the Austrians, who in turn received support from the Holy Alliance.
Finally, in 1866, the Treaty of Vienna was signed, with Austria ceding Venice to France, which then transferred it to the Kingdom of Italy. In 1866, Venice officially became a part of the Kingdom of Italy.
Following Italian Unification
In a pivotal decision, the Venice City Council, led by Mayor Riccardo Selvatico, approved the establishment of a national art exhibition on April 19, 1893. This resolution paved the way for the first Venice Biennale, which opened its doors on April 30, 1895, and has since become one of the world’s most prestigious art events.
The early 20th century brought significant urban and territorial transformations to Venice. In 1917, Mestre saw a portion of its land incorporated into Venice. Furthermore, the Italian government initiated the development of a residential zone in Porto Marghera.
The construction of the Ponte della Libertà in 1933 provided a road link between Venice and Padua. Concurrently, the Corso del Popolo was built to connect Venice with Mestre, resulting in the partial disruption of the Canal Salso.
Following World War II, the city’s surrounding areas experienced substantial urban growth. Simultaneously, a significant number of residents migrated from the historic heart of Venice to Mestre, particularly during the 1970s and after the devastating floods of 1966.
On September 11, 1970, a violent tornado, classified as an F5 on the Fujita scale, ravaged Venice, causing 21 fatalities and widespread destruction in the city center.
Currently, tourism forms the cornerstone of Venice’s economy. The city also serves as a vital cultural center, hosting La Biennale, the Venice Film Festival, and Ca’ Foscari University, one of Italy’s leading academic institutions. However, Venice faces the challenge of a declining population, driven by the adverse effects of mass tourism and the city’s elevated cost of living.
