The quest for the longest-lasting civilization yields no clear winner. The primary difficulty lies in precisely defining what constitutes a civilization.
Traditionally, the defining characteristics of a civilization have included the development of large urban centers, a complex division of labor and social stratification, government administration, the construction of monumental structures, and the advent of written language.
In recent decades, however, scholars have called into question almost all of those criteria, contending that some nomadic cultures, as well as ancient peoples without written language, should also be considered civilizations. The Inca, for instance, produced no written records in the conventional sense, yet they conducted censuses and maintained accounts using a system of knotted ropes known as khipu.
According to John Coleman Darnell, an Egyptologist at Yale University, “If you go back to the lexicographical origin of the word ‘civilization,’ it implies the existence of cities.” He adds, “Most people don’t use it that way anymore. In the modern world, ‘civilization’ often gets used interchangeably with ‘culture’ or it’s reserved for a more advanced type of culture.”
If this is the case, is it truly possible to pinpoint the exact moment a culture becomes sufficiently advanced to be classified as a “civilization”? And, perhaps more critically, who determines this?
Addressing Indigenous Cultures
The very definition of “civilization” has undeniably been colored by Eurocentrism and overt racism. In the 19th century, the vast majority of Indigenous and native cultures were unfortunately categorized as “uncivilized.”
Aboriginal Australians can trace their lineage directly to the first humans who settled in Australia approximately 50,000 years ago. Genetically, this makes them the most ancient continuous culture on Earth. Despite developing a vibrant culture—encompassing distinct languages, religious practices, and legal systems—prior to European contact in 1770, most textbooks typically do not classify Aboriginal Australians as a civilization.
The same applies to Native Americans, whose ancestral presence in North America spans more than 10,000 years and whose population numbered in the millions before the first Europeans arrived. Despite establishing significant settlements in the Southwest (e.g., the Pueblos) and the Ohio Valley (e.g., the Moundbuilders), Native Americans are typically not recognized as a cohesive civilization, partly attributed to their speaking over 2,000 distinct languages.
With these important caveats in mind, here are three leading contenders for the longest-lasting civilizations, including one that continues to thrive today.
Ancient Egypt (circa 3,100-4,000 years ago)
Ancient Egyptian civilization is traditionally considered to have begun with the unification of Egypt around 3100 B.C. The country, originally known as “the Two Lands,” was geographically split into Upper Egypt (southern) and Lower Egypt (northern).
Around 3100 B.C., a southern king, often identified as Menes or Narmer, unified the lands by conquering the north, establishing “Dynasty 0″—the very first Egyptian dynasty. However, historian Darnell argues that the true roots of Egyptian civilization predate this by several centuries. Darnell posits that Egyptian culture, discernible through the continuous evolution of its art and writing, can be traced back to at least 4000 B.C.
While this date may appear surprisingly early, Darnell explains that the foundational visual language of Egyptian hieroglyphics emerged during the Naqada culture, which prospered in Upper Egypt prior to unification. He elaborates that before the development of formal writing, Egyptians had devised a system of imagery to interpret and even depict the cosmos. As evidence, Darnell’s fieldwork uncovered monumental rock-carved hieroglyphics from 3250 B.C., featuring recurring images such as bulls, storks, and ibises. These specific hieroglyphic motifs first appeared during the Naqada period and remained consistent elements throughout ancient Egyptian history.
Determining the end of Egyptian civilization presents a similar challenge. Although Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 B.C., the civilization’s religious beliefs and pharaonic system persisted for centuries. The Ptolemaic Dynasty, founded by Macedonian Greeks, governed Egypt as pharaohs, notably including the renowned Cleopatra VII. Pharaonic rule officially concluded in 31 B.C. when Roman Emperor Octavian (later Augustus) defeated Cleopatra and Marc Antony, incorporating Egypt into the Roman Empire. While Darnell posits that Egyptian civilization endured until the triumph of Christianity in the Byzantine Era, 31 B.C. is generally accepted as the more conventional endpoint.
Therefore, depending on whether one adopts Darnell’s earlier proposed start date of 4000 B.C. or the traditional unification date of 3100 B.C., ancient Egyptian civilization spanned approximately 3,100 to 4,000 years.
Mesopotamia (Approx. 3,000 Years)
Humans first settled the fertile region between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (modern-day Iraq) as early as 14,000 B.C. However, by approximately 3500 B.C., Mesopotamia had already developed all the defining characteristics of a classical civilization.
Mesopotamians constructed the world’s earliest large cities, including Uruk, which housed over 50,000 people at its peak. They also erected monumental temples dedicated to their chief god, Marduk. Beyond agriculture, Mesopotamians specialized in various professions, working as potters, metalworkers, priests, and government administrators. Significantly, they maintained detailed records using cuneiform, widely regarded as the first writing system.
According to Darnell, cuneiform initially emerged as a series of notational marks for economic transactions. Unlike Egyptian hieroglyphics, which began as religious commentary used in art, cuneiform started as an economic, transactional system that only later evolved into phonetic writing.
For three millennia, Mesopotamia was ruled by a succession of powerful cultures and empires, including the Sumerians, Babylonians, Hittites, Assyrians, and Neo-Babylonians. This long-lasting civilization concluded in 539 B.C. when Babylon was invaded and conquered by Cyrus II of Persia.
China (Historical span: ~3,200 years)
Should contemporary China be viewed as a continuous progression from its ancient roots, it would undoubtedly rank among history’s most enduring civilizations. However, does China truly boast the “5,000 years” of history often asserted by traditional accounts?
Paul Goldin, a classical China historian at the University of Pennsylvania, suggests this is improbable. According to Goldin, the claim of “5,000 years” originates from a Chinese calendar beginning with the mythical Yellow Emperor. Huangdi, as he is also known, is one of five legendary individuals believed to have established Chinese civilization approximately 2700 B.C.
Furthermore, the Xia Dynasty, which traditional Chinese calendars place around 2000 B.C. and attribute to the legendary Yu the Great, is also widely doubted by scholars.
Goldin and his historical colleagues contend that the Shang Dynasty, established in 1600 B.C., represents the earliest Chinese dynasty supported by concrete archaeological findings. Yet, Goldin proposes that the true genesis of Chinese civilization should be placed even later, specifically 400 years after the Shang’s founding, with the advent of Chinese writing.
Goldin clarifies, “It becomes reasonable to define a civilization when a comprehensive writing system emerges, distinct from mere pottery marks whose function as writing is uncertain.” “For China,” he adds, “that milestone occurred around 1200 B.C.”
The earliest known examples of Chinese script appear on Oracle Bones—fragments of animal bone and turtle shell that served to document divination practices during the Shang Dynasty. Goldin notes that although these ancient characters would largely be unreadable by modern Chinese speakers, they undeniably represent the progenitors of today’s writing system.
Therefore, if Chinese civilization’s timeline truly commenced with the development of its writing system in 1200 B.C., its unbroken history spans over 3,200 years and continues to grow.
Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China were not the only advanced civilizations to span millennia. Other significant examples include Ancient Mesoamerica and Ancient Peru, both enduring for roughly 2,700 years, and the Indus River Valley civilization, which lasted for about 1,600 years.
